A REVIEW OF MUSLIM WOMEN’S RELIGIOUS EXPRESSION ON SOCIAL MEDIA: A CASE STUDY OF KANO STATE

1.1 Background to the Study Religious expression is a foundational aspect of individual and collective identity, influencing belief systems, moral conduct, and community affiliations. It encompasses verbal affirmations of faith, dress codes, ritual practices, and symbolic behaviors that signal one’s spiritual orientation (Pew Research Center, 2020). Traditionally, such expressions were confined to physical and institutionalized religious settings such as mosques, churches, and pilgrimage sites. However, with the advent of digital technologies and globalization, platforms for expressing religious belief have extended to virtual spaces, thereby reshaping the modes, scope, and accessibility of religious engagement (Campbell, 2020). In the Islamic tradition, religious expression is not only a personal act of devotion but also a social obligation tied to compliance with divine injunctions and communal expectations. The Qur’an and Hadith offer extensive guidance on acts of worship, social ethics, and appearance—especially for women. Muslim women are expected to manifest piety through modesty, which includes wearing the hijab or niqab, exhibiting restrained public behavior, and engaging in acts of worship and community service (El Guindi, 2000). In many Islamic societies, including Northern Nigeria, these expectations are further shaped by local cultural norms and patriarchal interpretations of Islamic law that often curtail women’s public religious presence (Mahmood, 2005). In Kano State and similar northern Nigerian contexts, women's religious participation has historically been limited due to societal conservatism and gendered norms. Although Islam encourages the acquisition of knowledge and spiritual growth for both men and women, patriarchal interpretations of Shari’ah law and sociocultural barriers have constrained women’s religious expression, particularly in public or leadership roles (Salihu, 2016). Access to platforms for public religious discourse was often mediated by male gatekeepers, reinforcing male dominance in theological interpretation and communal authority. The emergence of social media platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, and YouTube has significantly altered this dynamic. These digital tools have become powerful vehicles for religious self-expression among Muslim women, providing opportunities to share Qur’anic verses, Islamic reflections, modest fashion, and personal stories of faith. Women who were once confined to domestic or marginal religious roles are now able to reach large audiences, engage in Da’wah (Islamic propagation), and participate in religious dialogue—often bypassing traditional restrictions associated with physical spaces (Zuhayr, 2021). These platforms have become avenues for empowerment, as women assert religious agency and negotiate identity in digital spaces. This rise of digital piety, while empowering, also introduces new complexities. Studies indicate that while Muslim women enjoy increased visibility and connectivity online, they are simultaneously vulnerable to surveillance, misinterpretation, and cyberbullying (Bunt, 2018; Lim, 2019). The authenticity of online religious content, tensions between traditional and digital religious authority, and the negotiation of modesty in online spaces are emerging concerns. Despite these developments, there is limited empirical scholarship in the Nigerian context, especially on how Muslim women in culturally conservative regions like Kano are leveraging social media for religious expression and identity construction. In light of these considerations, this study seeks to explore how Muslim women in Kano State utilize social media as a medium for religious expression. Specifically, the research aims to understand the nature of religious content shared, the perceived challenges and benefits of digital engagement, and the implications for religious identity, agency, and sociocultural transformation. By focusing on Kano, a region known for its deep Islamic traditions, the study will contribute to ongoing scholarly discourse on digital religion, gender, and religious modernity in African Muslim societies. 1.2 Statement of the Problem Nigeria, with its complex religious and cultural diversity, has seen an increasing use of social media for religious expression. Among Nigerian youths and adults, social platforms have become a powerful tool for sharing religious sermons, fashion, teachings, and identity. However, recent statistics indicate that women are still underrepresented in online religious expression, especially in Northern Nigeria. According to a 2023 report by the Nigerian Bureau of Statistics and the Digital Religious Engagement Survey (DRES), only 31% of Muslim women in Northern Nigeria actively use social media for religious purposes, compared to 67% of their male counterparts. This gendered digital divide highlights persistent socio-religious barriers limiting women’s full participation in online religious discourse. Existing literature has examined the role of social media in promoting religious messages (Hassan et al., 2021; Falola & Usman, 2022), but studies focusing specifically on Muslim women’s digital religiosity remain limited in scope and context. Researchers such as Abubakar (2020) and Yusuf & Ibrahim (2023) have noted the constraints Muslim women face in voicing religious beliefs due to conservative cultural norms, misinterpretation of Islamic texts, and online misogyny. These constraints not only affect women's confidence in religious self-expression but also limit their influence in shaping religious narratives online. The marginalization of Muslim women from religious discourses reinforces structural inequalities and hinders broader gender inclusion in Islamic scholarship and digital faith-based activism. While some pioneering studies have explored online Islamic feminism and digital Da’wah in parts of East Africa and the Middle East, there is a significant gap in empirical research from Northern Nigeria, particularly Kano State, which is a major Islamic and cultural hub. Little is known about how Muslim women in this region are using platforms like Facebook, Instagram, and TikTok to navigate religiosity, express their faith, or resist cultural limitations. It is on this premise that this study is conducted to fill the knowledge gap by providing a grounded understanding of how digital platforms are transforming the religious experiences of Muslim women in Kano State, Nigeria. 1.3 Objectives of the Study The main objective of this study is to examine the religious expression of Muslim women on social media in Kano State. The specific objectives are to: 1. Investigate the types and nature of religious content shared by Muslim women on social media. 2. Explore the motivations behind such religious expression. 3. Examine the societal and religious reception of their online religious engagements. 4. Analyze the challenges faced by Muslim women in navigating digital religious spaces. 5. Assess the implications of digital religious expression for gender norms and religious discourse in Northern Nigeria. 1.4 Research Questions 1. What forms of religious expression are common among Muslim women on social media in Kano State? 2. What motivates Muslim women to share religious content online? 3. How do religious and societal stakeholders perceive Muslim women’s online religious expression? 4. What are the challenges faced by Muslim women in expressing religiosity through digital media? 5. What are the broader implications of their digital religious engagement for gender dynamics in Northern Nigerian Islam? 1.5 Significance of the Study This study is significant in several respects. It offers fresh insights into the understudied field of digital Islam and gender in Nigeria. By focusing on Muslim women in Kano State, it contributes to a nuanced understanding of how religious identities are negotiated in digital contexts. The findings are valuable to scholars in religious studies, gender studies, communication, and African studies. Additionally, religious leaders, policy makers, and digital rights activists may find the outcomes useful for framing inclusive discourse on faith and gender in the digital age. The study also has practical implications for digital literacy and ethical engagement in religious communication. 1.6 Scope of the Study Geographically, this study focuses on Muslim women in Kano State, Nigeria, with emphasis on those who actively use social media platforms for religious expression. Thematically, it explores digital religiosity, gender, societal response, and religious norms within the context of online platforms. Temporally, the study concentrates on religious activities within the last five years (2020–2025), covering both COVID-19 era transformations and post-pandemic religious reconfigurations. 1.7 Operational Definition of Terms Religious Expression: Any verbal, visual, or symbolic act or content posted on social media that reflects Islamic faith, values, or teachings. Social Media: Digital platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, WhatsApp, TikTok, and YouTube where users can share and interact with content. Muslim Women: Female adherents of Islam residing in Kano State, particularly those actively involved in online religious activities. Digital Piety: The use of online spaces and technologies to perform or express religious devotion. Societal Norms: Shared expectations within Kano society that guide acceptable behaviour, particularly regarding gender and religion.