A REVIEW ON NIGERIA'S POLITICAL SYSTEM AND THE INFLUENCE OF ETHNIC IDENTITY:

The origins of Nigeria’s political system are rooted in its colonial past, during which British colonial administrators employed a divide-and-rule strategy that deepened ethnic divisions. The amalgamation of the Northern and Southern Protectorates in 1914 was a pivotal event that brought together numerous ethnic groups under one administrative umbrella. However, this unification primarily served the British colonial interest—streamlining governance and maximizing resource extraction—rather than promoting genuine national unity (Ikelegbe, 2021). The centralized structure of governance inherited from the colonial era was ill-equipped to accommodate the nation’s extensive ethnic plurality. During the colonial period, the move toward regionalizing political authority—especially following the introduction of the Richards Constitution in 1946—further entrenched ethnic consciousness (Adeoye, 2019). The Hausa-Fulani, Yoruba, and Igbo each established strong political footholds in the North, West, and East, respectively. This development fostered competition and rivalry among the regions, laying the groundwork for the ethnic-based politics that has persisted in post-independence Nigeria (Suberu, 2022). Since independence in 1960, ethnicity has remained a dominant force in Nigeria’s political affairs. The First Republic (1960–1966) was marked by intense ethnic rivalry, culminating in a series of military coups and ultimately the Nigerian Civil War (1967–1970). This conflict—primarily involving the Eastern region dominated by the Igbo—brought to the fore the deep-seated ethnic divisions that had been festering since independence (Adeoye, 2019). In the post-civil war era, successive military regimes sought to manage ethnic tensions through various initiatives, including state creation and the adoption of the federal character principle. This principle, institutionalized in the 1979 Constitution, aimed to ensure equitable representation of Nigeria’s diverse ethnic groups within federal institutions. While intended to promote unity, the federal character policy inadvertently made ethnicity a central criterion for political appointments and resource distribution (Ogundiya & Baba, 2017). Today, ethnicity remains a defining feature of Nigeria’s political landscape. Political parties are frequently founded along ethnic lines, with leaders exploiting ethnic sentiments to build support. As a result, political loyalty often hinges on ethnic identity rather than shared ideologies or national interest. This ethnically fragmented system has led to a disjointed governance structure where policies and development agendas are frequently influenced by parochial interests (Mustapha, 2021). One of the most visible manifestations of ethnicity in Nigerian politics is the zoning arrangement—an informal power-sharing system designed to rotate leadership among different ethnic groups. While this strategy aims to promote inclusivity and prevent domination by any one group, it has also reinforced ethnic identities and hindered the emergence of truly national political figures (Ikelegbe, 1996). Furthermore, elections in Nigeria are frequently influenced by ethnic affiliations. Politicians often mobilize voters along ethnic lines, leading to election-related violence and heightened competition among groups vying for power. For instance, the general elections of 2011 and 2015 were marked by serious ethnic tension, culminating in widespread post-election violence in several parts of the country (Abdullahi, 2015). Ethnic considerations also significantly shape policy formulation and implementation. Although the federal character principle is designed to foster inclusivity, it has at times led to appointments based more on ethnicity than on merit. This approach has contributed to inefficiencies and corruption, with positions often occupied by underqualified individuals (Abdullahi, 2015). Additionally, the dominance of ethnic politics has further marginalized minority groups, excluding them from full political participation. These exclusions have intensified grievances and in some cases provoked violent responses, such as the Niger Delta militancy and the renewed agitation for Biafra’s secession (Suberu, 2022). In light of these realities, this study seeks to explore the Nigerian political system and assess the influence of ethnicity, using Imo State as a case study between the years 2012 and 2023. 1.2 Statement of the Problem Ethnicity continues to exert profound influence on Nigeria’s political framework, shaping governance practices, electoral behavior, and efforts toward national unity. Despite attempts to manage ethnic diversity through federalism and the federal character principle, ethnicity remains a dominant force, often leading to administrative inefficiencies, political instability, and social unrest (Adamu & Ocheni, 2016). A major issue is the way political actors exploit ethnic loyalties to secure electoral support. This manipulation has given rise to political parties and alliances grounded in ethnic affiliations rather than shared national ideologies. Such a system has fractured the political environment, often prioritizing ethnic loyalty over national development goals (Adeforiti, 2018). As a consequence, government policies and development programs are often skewed in favor of majority ethnic groups, leaving minority populations feeling excluded and marginalized. Moreover, the informal zoning system—designed to ensure equitable power distribution among ethnic groups—has unintentionally reinforced ethnic consciousness. Although intended to mitigate ethnic dominance, zoning has made it difficult for politicians with a genuinely national outlook to emerge, thereby perpetuating ethnocentric governance cycles (Ibrahim, 2023). The role of ethnicity in the electoral process is also clearly evident. Elections in Nigeria are frequently marred by ethnic-based campaigns, violence, and divisiveness. The resulting tensions compromise the integrity of the electoral process and pose a serious threat to the country’s democratic system. For instance, the 2023 general elections witnessed heightened ethnic tensions, with widespread reports of voter suppression and violence in areas perceived as strongholds of minority ethnic groups (Adeyemi, 2023). Additionally, while the federal character principle aims to promote diversity and inclusivity in public service, it has often resulted in appointments being made primarily on the basis of ethnic origin rather than merit. This has led to governance inefficiencies and perpetuated corruption, as roles are filled by individuals who may lack the requisite competence or experience (Okeke, 2023). Given these ongoing challenges, it becomes imperative to conduct a comprehensive examination of Nigeria’s political structure and the pervasive impact of ethnicity on its functioning. This study, therefore, focuses on the political dynamics of Imo State from 2012 to 2023, aiming to provide deeper insight into the broader national experience. 1.3 Research questions The following questions have been prepared to guide the study i. What is the historical evolution of Nigeria's political system? ii. What is the role of ethnicity in shaping political party formations and alliances in Nigeria? iii. What is the impact of ethnic-based politics on governance and policy-making in Nigeria? 1.4 Objectives of the study The broad objective of the study is to Nigeria political system and the impact of ethnicity. Using Imo Sate as case study; 2012-2023. The specific objectives is as follows i. To analyze the historical evolution of Nigeria's political system ii. To examine the role of ethnicity in shaping political party formations and alliances in Nigeria iii. To assess the impact of ethnic-based politics on governance and policy-making in Nigeria. 1.5 Research hypothesis The stated hypotheses have been formulated to further guide the study H0: Ethnicity does not have an impact on Nigeria political system Ha: Ethnicity does have an impact on Nigeria political system 1.6 Scope of the study The study focus on Nigeria political system and the impact of ethnicity. Using Imo Sate as case study; 2012-2023. Empirically, the study will analyze the historical evolution of Nigeria's political system, examine the role of ethnicity in shaping political party formations and alliances in Nigeria and assess the impact of ethnic-based politics on governance and policy-making in Nigeria. Geographically the study is delimited to Imo Sate. 1.7 significance of the study Findings of this study will guide policymakers in designing strategies that mitigate the negative effects of ethnic politics. By revealling the ways in which ethnicity can hinder national unity and effective governance, the study emphasizes the need for policies that promote inclusivity, equity, and national cohesion. Such policies are essential for creating a political environment that transcends ethnic divisions and fosters a sense of shared national identity. The study will also be significant to the academic community as it will contribute to existing literature, add to library resources and serve as a guide to future researcher. 1.8 Research methodology Research methodology deals with the different ways or methods the researcher applied in order to carry out the research as well as the instrument used for gathering the data. There are several research methodologies appropriate for answering the research questions. The type of research methodology used in this research to gather data and relevant information is the systematic review and historical research and the study will adopt descriptive method of data collection. This will involve the collection of materials from secondary sources, such as books, journal articles, magazines, internet sources, international and national conference proceedings, published and unpublished articles. 1.9 Definitions/Clarification of terms Political System: The structure and processes through which a country organizes, governs, and makes decisions. In the context of Nigeria, it refers to the federal system of government that includes the executive, legislative, and judicial branches, as well as the interactions between various levels of government (federal, state, and local). Ethnicity: A social construct that categorizes people based on shared cultural, linguistic, religious, or ancestral traits. In Nigeria, ethnicity often refers to the identification with one of the numerous ethnic groups, such as Hausa-Fulani, Yoruba, Igbo, and others, which play a significant role in social, economic, and political life. Federal Character Principle: A constitutional provision in Nigeria aimed at ensuring equitable representation of the country's diverse ethnic groups in federal institutions and appointments. The principle is designed to prevent the domination of any single ethnic group in government and promote national unity. Zoning Arrangement: An informal political practice in Nigeria where political offices, particularly the presidency, are rotated among different ethnic regions to promote power-sharing and reduce ethnic tensions. This arrangement is intended to ensure that no single ethnic group monopolizes political power. Ethnic-Based Politics: A form of politics in which political parties, candidates, and voters prioritize ethnic affiliations over national interests or ideological platforms. This often leads to the formation of political alliances based on ethnic considerations rather than policy objectives. National Unity: The sense of solidarity and cohesion among the diverse ethnic groups in Nigeria, fostering a collective national identity and purpose. National unity is often challenged by ethnic divisions and political competition along ethnic lines.